This protocol describes how to generate a Drosophila S2 cell line that is sensitive to small molecule inhibitors of kinesin-5. The use of these cells in a cell-based error correction assay is also outlined.
Kinetochores are large protein-based structures that assemble on centromeres during cell division and link chromosomes to spindle microtubules. Proper distribution of the genetic material requires that sister kinetochores on every chromosome become bioriented by attaching to microtubules from opposite spindle poles before progressing into anaphase. However, erroneous, non-bioriented attachment states are common and cellular pathways exist to both detect and correct such attachments during cell division. The process by which improper kinetochore-microtubule interactions are destabilized is referred to as error correction. To study error correction in living cells, incorrect attachments are purposely generated via chemical inhibition of kinesin-5 motor, which leads to monopolar spindle assembly, and the transition from mal-orientation to biorientation is observed following drug washout. The large number of chromosomes in many model tissue culture cell types poses a challenge in observing individual error correction events. Drosophila S2 cells are better subjects for such studies as they possess as few as 4 pairs of chromosomes. However, small molecule kinesin-5 inhibitors are ineffective against Drosophila kinesin-5 (Klp61F). Here we describe how to build a Drosophila cell line that effectively replaces Klp61F with human kinesin-5, which renders the cells sensitive to pharmacological inhibition of the motor and suitable for use in the cell-based error correction assay.
Equal segregation of the genome during cell division requires correct interactions between the replicated DNA and spindle microtubules. Microtubules physically interact with chromosomes through an ensemble of proteins that assembles at centromeres known as the kinetochore1. Correct distribution of the chromosomes requires that sister kinetochores are bioriented, in which each sister is associated with microtubules originating from opposite spindle poles. Kinetochore microtubule (kt-MT) attachments that are not in the bioriented conformation are quickly and efficiently destabilized to provide the opportunity to establish biorientation in a process known as error correction. An error correction assay that was previously established in mammalian cells5 requires assembling monopolar spindles using reversible small molecule inhibitors against Eg5 (kinesin-5). The drug treatment generates a multitude of erroneous syntelic attachments in which both sister kinetochores attach to the same spindle pole. A subsequent washout of the drug allows for visualization of the error correction process. The error correction assay can be done in the presence of small molecule inhibitors or knockdowns to study the contribution of candidate proteins to correcting erroneous kt-MT attachments.
The ability to visualize error correction in living cells is a powerful tool to further understand the molecular mechanism involved in this complex process. However, the large number of chromosomes present in most cell lines poses a challenge in observing individual kt-MT attachments. Drosophila S2 cells would be ideal for applying the error correction assay as they contain as few as 4 chromosomes6, but small molecule inhibitors of kinesin 5 such as S-trityl-L-cysteine (STLC) and monastrol7-9 do not affect spindle assembly or kinesin-5 motor function in Drosophila cells. We therefore generated a Drosophila S2 cell line expressing human kinesin-5 under an inducible promoter that is sensitive to kinesin-5 inhibitors. This protocol describes how to knockdown the endogenous Drosophila kinesin-5 homologue, Klp61F, and use this cell line in the cell-based error correction assay.
1. Transfecting S2 Cells
2. RNA Interference
3. Live Cell Imaging
4. Error Correction Assay
Klp61F is required to form bipolar spindles. The human kinesin-5, Eg5, can rescue the function of Klp61F in Drosophila S2 cells (Figure 1A and D). Upon addition of the kinesin-5 inhibitor (STLC), microtubule-associated levels of the motor drop (Figure 1B and E), and the spindle collapses, resulting in a monopole (Figure 1C and F) in cells lacking endogenous Klp61F upon successful RNAi (Supplemental movie 1). It is noteworthy that bipolar spindles collapse upon addition of STLC in the humanized S2 cells because kinesin-5 activity is not required to maintain spindle bipolarity in human cells. This interesting discrepancy may be a result of differences in interpolar microtubule overlap and/or stability in the two model systems14. Kinesin-5 inhibition (Figure 2A and E) can be reversed by washing out the drug and recovery of a bipolar spindle can be followed over time. Upon removal of the inhibitor (Figure 2B and F), Eg5-mCherry re-associates with the microtubules as a bipolar spindle assembles (Figure 2C and G), and cells can progress into a bipolar anaphase (Figure 2D and H, Supplemental movie 2).
Figure 1. Addition of 1 µM STLC leads to monopolar spindles in Drosophila S2 cells. Representative images from time-lapse imaging of a Drosophila S2 cell expressing Eg5-mCherry (A-C) and GFP-α-tubulin (D-F) during addition of 1 µM STLC. The Eg5 inhibitor was added at 3 min. Scale bar = 5 µm. Timestamp = min:sec. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 2. A bipolar spindle reforms upon removal of STLC. Representative images from time-lapse imaging of a Drosophila 2 cell expressing Eg5-mCherry (A-D) and GFP-α-tubulin (E-H) during an STLC washout experiment. STLC was washed out at 5 min. A bipolar spindle reforms within 1 hr of removing the STLC. Scale bar = 5 µm. Timestamp: min:sec. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Supplemental Movie 1. (Right click to download). Widefield fluorescence imaging of a representative example of a Drosophila S2 cell expressing Eg5-mCherry (left) and GFP-α-tubulin (right). 1 µM STLC was added at 2 min, and the spindle forms a monopole within 10 min after addition of the inhibitor. Images were acquired every 1 min and played at a rate of 10 frames per second. Scale bar = 5 µm.
Supplemental Movie 2. (Right click to download). Widefield fluorescence imaging of a representative example of a Drosophila S2 cell expressing Eg5-mCherry (left) and GFP-α-tubulin (right). Media containing 1 µM STLC was removed and rinsed at 5 min. A bipolar spindle reforms within 1 hr of removing the inhibitor. Images were acquired every 1 min and played at a rate of 10 frames per second. Scale bar = 5 µm.
Visualizing error correction is a valuable technique to study the steps involved in this important and complex cellular process. To do so, erroneous attachments are generated using reversible inhibitors, and error correction is observed upon washout of the drug. This assay was originally developed using mammalian tissue culture cells5. However the presence of large number of kinetochores in many model mammalian cell types poses a challenge in observing individual error correction events. Drosophila S2 cells possess as few as 4 pairs of kinetochores, making them a more preferable cell line for observing error correction. However, a major drawback is that many inhibitors are ineffective in Drosophila S2 cells. Thus, the ability to generate a humanized Drosophila S2 cell line expressing human kinesin-5 provides a valuable tool to study error correction.
Although Drosophila S2 cells can be a better cell line to study error correction, the multiple steps involved in obtaining the cell line and knocking down essential genes poses some challenges to this technique. For instance, transfection efficiency can be quite low. If less than 20% of the cells are expressing the Eg5-mCherry, the transfection should be repeated as the selection process will take longer. Also, the percentage of cells expressing both fluorescent proteins may decrease over time. This can be overcome by splitting cells in the presence of Blasticidin S HCl and Hygromycin B to select for cells expressing Eg5-mCherry and GFP-α-tubulin, respectively. It is also important to note that Drosophila S2 cells have orthologues to many human proteins and; therefore, it is critical to optimize the knockdown conditions for the endogenous proteins. Optimal knockdown conditions may vary in the amount of dsRNA and the length of treatment. Considering the emergence and rapid improvement of CRISPR-Cas9 technologies15-17, generation of a Drosophila cell line with the Klp61F gene replaced by human Eg5 presents a powerful alternative that would overcome the limitations of the transfection and knockdown approach. Our work demonstrates that fly-to-human gene replacement should be a viable option in this case although the necessary reagents to do so in Drosophila S2 cells are currently being developed.
This procedure is not limited to Eg5, but can be applied to study the function of other proteins of interest. If using inhibitors that have previously been established to be ineffective in Drosophila S2 cells, this protocol can be modified to study the direct effect of inhibitors in live cells without concerns about off target effects. The cell line produced using this protocol could also be used in high-throughput screening analyses to identify potential drugs targeting proteins involved in error correction.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
We would like to thank Patricia Wadsworth for the gift of the kinesin-5 construct. This work was supported by an NIH grant (5 R01 GM107026) to T.J.M. and by Research Grant No. 5-FY13-205 from the March of Dimes Foundation to T.J.M., as well as support from the Charles H. Hood Foundation, Inc., Boston, MA. to T.J.M.
Effectine Transfection Reagent | Qiagen | 301425 | |
Klp61F cDNA | Drosophila Genomic Resource Center | 13690 | Gene Name LD15641 |
Schneider’s Media | Invitrogen | 21720-024 | |
Fetal Bovine Serum, certified | Invitrogen | 10082-147 | Heat Inactivated, US origin |
Copper (II) Sulfate (CuSO4) | Sigma | C8027-500G | 500mM stock |
S-trityl-l-cysteine | Sigma | 164739-5G | 1mM stock in DMSO |
Blasticidin HCl | Invitrogen | R21001 | 5mg/ml stock in 1x PBS |
Hygromycin B | Invitrogen | 10687010 | |
T7 Large scale RNA Production System | Promega | P1320 | The approximate dsRNA concentration from each reaction is about 5-15µg/µl |
Klp61F RNAi F primer | Invitrogen | TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGTA-TTTGCGCATTATTTTAAAA | |
Klp61F RNAi R primer | Invitrogen | TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAT-ATTGATCAATTGAAAC | |
PCR clean-up kit | Mo Bio Laboratories, Inc | 1250 | |
Concanavalin A | Sigma | C5275 | 0.5mg/ml solution made by dissolving in 1xPBS. |
Boiled Donkey Serum | Jackson ImmunoResearch Labs | 017-000-121 | 5% stock solution in 1X PHEM buffer, bring solution up to boil. Stored in 4°C. |
Mounting Media | 20mM Tris pH 8.0, 0.5% N-propyl gallate, 90% Glycerol. Stored in 4°C | ||
1x BRB-80 | 80 mM PIPES pH 6.9; 1 mM EGTA; 1 mM MgCl2 | ||
White Light Source | Lumencor Inc | ||
ET EGFP Filter Cube | Chroma | 49002 | |
DSRed Filter Cube | Chroma | 49005 | |
anti-NDC80 antibody | Custom made by the Maresca Lab | ||
DM1α (anti-α-tubulin) | Sigma | T6199 | |
anti-CID antibody | AbCam | ab10887 |